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BOLDO
Family: Monimiaceae
Genus: Peumus
Species: boldus
Common names: Boldo, Boldina, Baldina
Part Used: Bark, Leaves
DESCRIPTION
Properties/Actions:
 Anodyne, Anthlemintic, Antibacterial, Antifungal, Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, Antiseptic, Cholagogue, Choleretic, Demulcent, Depurative, Detoxifier, Diuretic, Hepatic, Hepatotonic, Sedative, Stimulant, Stomachic, Tonic, Vermifuge
Phytochemicals:
 Myrtenal,1,8-cineole,1-methyl-4-isopropenyl-benzene, 2-decanone, 2-heptaone, 2-nonanone, 2-octanone, Alpha-3-carene, Alpha-fenchol, Alpha-hexylcinnamaldehyde, Alpha-methylionone, Alpha-pinene, Alpha- terpineol, Ascaridole, Benzaldehyde, Benzyl-benzoate, Beta-pinene, Boldine, Boldoglucin, Bornyl-acetate, Camphene, Camphor, Choline, Coumarin, Cuminaldehyde, Diethyl-phthalate, EO, Eugenol, Farnesol, Fenchone, Gamma-terpinene, Isoboldine, Isocorydine, Isocorydine-n-oxide, Isorhamnetin- 3-glucoside-7-rhamnoside, Kaempferol-3-glucoside-7 -rhamnoside, Laurolitsine, Laurotetanine, Limonene, Linalool, Methyl-eugenol, Norisocorydine, P-cymene, P-cymol, Rhamnetin-3-arabinoside-3'-rhamnoside, Sabinene, Sparteine, Tannin, Terpinen-4-Ol, Terpinoline, 2-tridecanone, 2-undecanone, eta-isomethylionone, Boldin, Gum, Isorhamnetin-3-alpha-l-arabinopyranosid\ E-7-alpha-l-rhamn, N-methyllaurotetanine, Pachycarpine, Resin, Reticuline
Traditional Remedy:
 One-half cup leaf infusion 1-2 times daily with meals or 2-4 ml of a 4:1 tincture twice daily. 1-4 grams of powdered leaf in tablets or capsules twice daily can be substituted if desired. See Traditional Herbal Remedies Preparation Methods page if necessary for definitions.
ETHNOBOTANY: WORLDWIDE USES(37)
Chile
 Diuretic, Earache, Gallbladder, Gallstones, Jaundice, Liver, Stimulant, Stomach
Elsewhere
 Dyspepsia, Gallbladder, Gallstones, Gout, Hepatosis, Liver, Rheumatism, Stomach, Syphilis, Worms
Latin America
 Anodyne, Antiseptic, Choleretic, Digestion, Gallbladder, Gallstones, Gonorrhea, Hepatotonic, Liver, Stomachic, Stomach, Stimulant, Tonic, Urogenital, Vermifuge
Mexico
 Anodyne, Gallbladder, Gallstones, Liver, Rheumatism, Stomachic
Turkey
 Antiseptic, Diuretic, Hepatotonic, Rheumatism, Sedative, Stimulant, Stomachic, Tonic, Vermifuge
Boldo is an evergreen shrubby tree growing 6 to 8 meters in height. It is found in the Andean regions of Chile and Peru and is also indigenous to parts of Morocco. Boldo is cultivated in some parts of Italy, Brazil and North Africa to meet the demand for its medicinal leaves in European and Canadian markets where it is widely used.
Indigenous uses of Boldo has been widely documented. For many years in Chile the fruit has been eaten as a spice, the wood used for charcole and the bark has been used in tanning hides.(1) It is also used in Chilean folk medicine as a anthelmintic against worms(2) which activity has been attributed to its ascaridole content of the essential oil found the the leaves.(3) In parts of Peru the leaves are used by indigenous tribes against liver diseases and to treat gallstones(4) as well as a diuretic.(5) The indigenous uses were verified early by researchers who showed that boldo leaves had diuretic, stomachic and cholagogic properties.(6, 7)
Boldo leaves are the subject of a German therapuetic monograph which allows the use for mild gastrointestinal spasms and dyspeptic disorders(8) as well as a subject of a US monograph which shows that boldo causes clinically significant diuresis.(9) Boldo's history in traditional medicine is well documented.(10,11,12) The plant is used in homeopathy in the treatment of digestive disorders, as a laxative, choleretic, diruetic, and for hepatic disturbances.(9) The leaves have been used for worms,(2) and Dr. James Duke reports its traditional use for urogenital inflammations like gonorrhea and syphilis, as well as for gout, jaundice, dyspepsia, rheumatism, head colds and earaches.(13)
Boldo is rich in phytochemicals including at least 17 known alkaloids.(13 - 18) A total of atleast 38 phytochemical compounds have been identified.(19) The choleretic activity of the plant has been attributed to the aporphine alklaloid, boldine,(2, 16) which has also shown to have diuretic, uric acid excretory, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory and weak hypnotic effects as well.(2, 15, 20) Boldine has been shown to stimulate digestion, and specifically to stimulate the production of bile, and its secretion from the gall bladder, and the secretion of gastic juice.(15, 21, 22, 23) Although boldine is largely atrributed, one study indicated that a alcohol extract of boldo leaves had a higher choleretic activity in rats over boldine.(21) Antioxidant properties of the leaves has also been documented.(25) A recent human study demonstrated that Boldo relaxes smooth muscle and prolongs intestinal transit which validified again its traditional medicinal uses.(26) The average therapuetic dose is reported to be 2-3 grams daily.(26, 27)
In herbal medicine today, Boldo is used extensively throughout Europe, North America, South America and Latin America as a specific for gallstones and gallbladder inflammation, and for many types of liver, stomach and digestive disorders.(27-36) Two new clinical studies conducted in 1998 have again validated its uses in gastrointestinal disorders in animals and humans.(37, 38)
Footnotes:
  1. Osol A, Farrar G., eds. The Dispensatory of the U.S. ed. Philadelphia, PA Lippincott, 1955. Kreitmar, H. Pharmazie 1952; 7:507.

  2. Wichtl, M. Herbal Drugs and Phytopharmaceuticals, ed. CRC Press, Boca Roton, Fl 1994

  3. Hager, vol 6A, 555 (1977)

  4. Genest K, Hughes DW. Can J Pharm Sci 1965;3:85

  5. DaLegnano LP. The Medicinal Plants. Edizione Mediterranea 1968

  6. Schindler, H. Arzneim. Forsch 1957; 7:747

  7. Bombardelli, E., et al. Fitoterapia 1976; 47:3

  8. Monograph Boldo folium, Bundesanzeiger, No 76 (April 23, 1987).

  9. Monograph Boldo, (May 1991) The Lawrence Review of Natural Products, ed. JP Lippincott

  10. Girón LM, et al. Ethnobotanical survey of the medicinal flora used by the Caribs of Guatemala. J Ethnopharmacol, 1991 Sep

  11. Lanhers MC, et al. Hepatoprotective and anti-inflammatory effects of a traditional medicinal plant of Chile, Peumus boldus. Planta Med, 1991 Apr

  12. Lévy-Appert-Collin MC, et al. [Galenic preparations from Peumus boldus leaves (Monimiacea) J Pharm Belg, 1977 Jan-Feb

  13. Duke, JA, CRC Handbook of Medicinal Herbs 1985. Ed. CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL

  14. Rueggett, A. Helv Chim Acta 1959;42:754.

  15. Hansel, R., Phytopharmaka, 2nd ed., Springer-Verlag, Berlin 1991, pp 186-191

  16. Hughes DW, et al. Alkaloids of Peumus boldus. Isolation of (+) reticuline and isoboldine. J Pharm Sci, Jun 1968;57:1023.

  17. Hughes DW, et al. Alkaloids of Peumus boldus. Isolation of laurotetanine and laurolitsine. J Pharm Sci, 1968 Sep

  18. Vanhaelen M. [Spectrophotometric microdetermination of alkaloids in Peumus boldus] J Pharm Belg, 1973 May-Jun

  19. Lueng A., & Foster, S. Encyclopedia of Common Natural Ingredients. Ed. Wiley & Sons, NY, NY. 1996.

  20. Backhouse N, et al. Anti-inflammatory and antipyretic effects of boldine. Agents Actions, 1994 Oct.

  21. Krug H, et al. [New flavonol glycosides from the leaves of Peumus boldus Molina] Pharmazie, 1965 Nov.

  22. Speisky H, et al. Boldo and boldine: an emerging case of natural drug development. Pharmacol Res, 1994 Jan-Feb.

  23. Tavares DC, et al. Evaluation of the genotoxic potential of the alkaloid boldine in mammalian cell systems in vitro and in vivo. Mutat Res, 1994 May.

  24. Levy-Appert-Collin, MC, et at. J Pharm. Belg. 32, 13 (1977).

  25. Hirosue, T., et al. Chem. Abstr., 109 229018d (1988).

  26. Gotteland, M. et al. Effect of a dry boldo extract on oro-cecal intestinal transit in healthy volunteers. Rev Med Chil 123: 955-960 (1995)

  27. Tyler, Varro, Herbs of Choice, 1994. ed. Hawthorne Press, New York, NY.

  28. Hoffman, D. The New Holistic Herbal, 1991. ed Element Books, Inc. Rockport, MA.

  29. Bartram, Thomas., Encyclopedia of Herbal Medicine, 1995. Ed Grace Publishers, Doreset England

  30. Bernardes, Antonio, 1984 A Pocketbook of Brazilian Herbs, Editora e Arta Ltda. Brazil.

  31. Schauenberb, Paul, Paris, Ferdinand. Guide to Medicinal Plants. 1977. Ed. Keats Publishing Cambridge, England

  32. Grieve, M. A Modern Herbal. 1992. ed. Dorset Press Chatham, England

  33. Hoffman, David, The Herbal Handbook. 1987. ed. Healing Arts Press, Rochester, VT

  34. de Almeida, Edvaldo Rodrigues, Plantas Medicinais Brasileiras, 1993. ed. Hemus Editora Limitada, Sau Paulo Brazil

  35. De Sousa, MP., et al. Constitutintes Quimicos Ativos de Plantas Medicinais Brasileiras, 1991. Ed. Laboratorio de Produtos Naturais, Fortaleza, Brazil.

  36. Matos, FJ Abreu, Farmacias vivas, sistema de utilizaco de plantas medicinais projetado para pequenas comunidades. 1994. Ed. Edicoes UFC Fortaleza, Brazil

  37. Kang JJ, et al. Studies on neuromuscular blockade by boldine in the mouse phrenic nerve-diaphragm. Jpn J Pharmacol. 1998 Feb;76(2):207-12.

  38. Kang JJ, et al. Effects of boldine on mouse diaphragm and sarcoplasmic reticulum vesicles isolated from skeletal muscle. Planta Med. 1998 Feb;64(1):18-21.
REFERENCED QUOTES ON BOLDO
"Boldo's medicinal properties were discovered when sheep grazing in a field of Boldo no longer had constipation and liver trouble. Its fragrant minty leaves contain an essential oil that is useful for digestive upsets, liver and bile problems, and kidney and urinary tract illnesses. In Chile, it is customary to use Boldo as a vermifuge to kill intestinal worms. (A vermifuge is a substance that helps eliminate parasites.) Chronic digestive problems such as gas and poor digestion respond well to this bile-stimulating herb. It reduces excess gastric acidity and is often used as a treatment for gall bladder stones. Boldo is one of the most popular herbs in South America and is considered to be an excellent general tonic." 2 "Boldo is a widely used herb in South America. It has been used to treat liver, gallbladder and bowel dysfunctions. It helps promote fat digestion by stimulating the secretion of bile. It helps neutralize acid and is good for digestion. It has been used in Latin America for urogenital inflammations such as gonorrhea. Elsewhere it has been used for gout, hepatitis, rheumatism, syphilis and worms. It has been shown to be an antiseptic and diuretic which is good for urinary infections and uric acid elimination." 3 "ACTIONS: Nourishes blood, Enhances digestion, Aids liver function, Balances pH, General tonic TRADITIONAL USE: One of the most widely used herbs in South America, Brazilians believe Boldo to be an excellent general tonic for the organism. It has been used to help treat liver and bowel dysfunctions. Encourages proper digestion by stimulating the secretion of bile. MERIDIAN INDICATIONS: Increases Stomach Yin, Opens liver / Gallbladder meridian, EAV POINTS: Liver, Stomach Small Intestine." 4 "Tonic, antiseptic, stimulant. Useful in chronic torpor. The oil in 5-drop doses has been found useful in genito-urinary inflammation. Has long been recognized in South America as a valuable cure for gonorrhea." 7 "Boldo is a specific for gall-bladder problems like stones or inflammations. It is also useful when there is visceral pain due to other problems in the liver or gall-bladder. Boldo has mild urinary demulcent and antiseptic properties and so would be used in cystitis. Actions: Cholagogue, hepatic, diuretic, sedative." 8 "Brazilian uses and folklore: "The medicinal uses of this plant were discovered by chance. One day many years ago, a Chilean shepherd perceived that his sheep were livelier and healthier than before and were no longer suffering from constipation and liver trouble. He investigated and discovered that his flock was eating the leaves of a certain plant - there being no other vegetation around. This plant was Boldo, and since then it has been used by man, in the form of a tea, to help treat liver and bowel dysfunctions. Boldo tea is also an excellent general tonic for the organism. In 1874 Doctors Bougin and Verne did some scientific research on the plant. They extracted from the leaves of Boldo an alkaloid which came to be known as Boldina.. Many people believe that this alkloid is the reason Boldo is so helpful. Boldo helps the liver function well. The liver is the builder of the blood, and blood nourishes the body. Boldo is also influential in treating chronic affectations of the digestive organs. Uses: Useful in treating symptoms of liver dysfunctions and diseases (hepatitis, liver congestions), constipation, gases and poor digestion. Acts as a tonic for the organism, helps combat weakness,dizziness." 18 "The dried leaves of Peumus boldus Mol. (family Monimiaceae), an evergreen shrub native to Chile, have an ancient reputation as a "hepatic tonic," diuretic, and laxative. The herb contains about 2 percent of a volatile oil, the principal constituents of which are ascaridole, eucalyptol, and p-cymol, About 0.25 to 0.5 percent of an alkaloidal mixture is also present. Boldine, an aporphine alkaloid, constitutes about one-fourth of the total; the remainder consists of about 16 different alkaloids.59 Boldine is responsible for both the choleretic and diuretic activity of the leaves.64 Although the herb may increase the flow of urine substantially, the mechanism of action is still unknown, so it is uncertain if boldine's action is one of true diuresis or simply aquaresis, as is the case with most herbs in this category.
Although Commission E has approved the use of boldo for the treatment of dyspepsia as well as for stomach and intestinal cramps, it must be noted that the volatile oil in the leaves contains about 40 percent ascaridole, a rather toxic component. Since no chronic toxicity testing has been carried out, Hansel has recommended that prolonged use of the herb or any consumption by pregnant women be avoided."
59. Hansel, R.: Phytopharmaka, 2nd ed., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1991,
pp 186-191.
64. Lawrence Review of Natural Products: July, 1989. 21 "MONIMIACEAE
Monimia Family
The 20 genera of this family have more than 240 species of shrubs and trees of tropical regions of both hemispheres, but particularly of Madagascar, Australia and Polynesia. In addition to the earlier literature, a recent review of the alkaloids has been published (Guinaudeau, 1975).
REFERENCES:
Guinaudeau, H., M. Le Boeuf and A. Cave, Lloydia 38 (1975) 275."
CLINICAL ABSTRACTS
Composition and antimicrobial activity of the essential oil of Peumus boldus leaves.
Vila R, Valenzuela L, Bello H, Canigueral S, Montes M, Adzet T
Planta Med 1999 Mar;65(2):178-9
The composition and the antimicrobial activity of the essential oil from the leaves of Peumus boldus is investigated. Analyses of the oil obtained by hydrodistillation were carried out by GC and GC-MS using columns of two different stationary phases. Fractionation of the essential oil by column chromatography on silica gel was performed to improve identification of some constituents. More than 90% of the total oil (46 components) was identified, major constituents being monoterpenes (90.5%), among which limonene (17.0%), p-cymene (13.6%), 1.8-cineole (11.8%), and beta-phellandrene (8.4%) reached the highest percentages. Determination of the minimal bactericidal or fungicidal concentration against several microorganisms showed interesting activities towards Streptococcus pyogenes, Micrococcus sp., and Candida sp.
Studies on neuromuscular blockade by boldine in the mouse phrenic nerve-diaphragm.
Kang JJ, Cheng YW, Fu WM
Jpn J Pharmacol 1998 Feb;76(2):207-12
The effects of boldine [(S)-2,9-dihydroxyl-1,10-dimethoxy-aporphine], a major alkaloid in the leaves and bark of Boldo (Peumus boldus Mol.), on neuromuscular transmission were studied using a muscle phrenic-nerve diaphragm preparation. Boldine at concentrations lower than 200 microM preferentially inhibited, after an initial period of twitch augmentation, the nerve-evoked twitches of the mouse diaphragm and left the muscle-evoked twitches unaffected. The twitch inhibition could be restored by neostigmine or washout with Krebs solution. The twitches evoked indirectly and directly were both augmented initially, suggesting that the twitch augmentation induced by boldine was myogenic. Boldine inhibited the acetylcholine-induced contraction of denervated diaphragm dose-dependently with an IC50 value of 13.5 microM. At 50 microM, boldine specifically inhibited the amplitude of the miniature end plate potential. In addition, boldine was similar to d-tubocurarine in its action to reverse the neuromuscular blocking action of alpha-bungarotoxin. These results showed that the neuromuscular blockade by boldine on isolated mouse phrenic-nerve diaphragm might be due to its direct interaction with the postsynaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptor.
Effects of boldine on mouse diaphragm and sarcoplasmic reticulum vesicles isolated from skeletal muscle.
Kang JJ, Cheng YW
Planta Med 1998 Feb;64(1):18-21
The effects of boldine [(S)-2,9-dihydroxy-1,10-dimethoxyaporphine], a major alkaloid in the leaves and bark of boldo (Peumus boldus Mol.), on skeletal muscle were studied using mouse diaphragm and isolated sarcoplasmic reticulum membrane vesicles. Boldine, at 10-200 microM, has little effect on the muscle-evoked twitches; however, the ryanodine-induced contracture was potentiated dose-dependently. At higher concentrations of 300 microM, boldine by itself induced muscle contracture of two phases, which were caused by the influx of extracellular Ca2+ and induction of Ca2+ release from the internal Ca2+ storage site, the sarcoplasmic reticulum, respectively. When tested with isolated sarcoplasmic reticulum membrane vesicles, boldine dose-dependently induced Ca2+ release from actively loaded sarcoplasmic reticulum vesicles isolated from skeletal muscle of rabbit or rat which was inhibited by ruthenium red, suggesting that the release was through the Ca2+ release channel, also known as the ryanodine receptor. Boldine also dose-dependently increased apparent [3H]-ryanodine binding with the EC50 value of 50 microM. In conclusion, we have shown that boldine could sensitize the ryanodine receptor and induce Ca2+ release from the internal Ca2+ storage site of skeletal muscle.
[Effect of a dry boldo extract on oro-cecal intestinal transit in healthy volunteers].
[Article in Spanish]
Gotteland M, Espinoza J, Cassels B, Speisky H
Rev Med Chil 1995 Aug;123(8):955-60
BACKGROUND: Boldo (Peumus boldus Molina) is a widely used medicinal plant. However, its physiological effects are not well known. Recent studies in animals showed that certain components of boldo relax smooth muscle and prolong intestinal transit. AIM: To assess the effects of a dry boldo extract on oro cecal transit time in normal humans. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Twelve volunteers received 2.5 g of a dry boldo extract or a placebo (glucose) during two successive periods of four days. On the fourth day, 20 g of lactulose were administered and breath hydrogen was collected every 15 min. Oro cecal transit time was defined as the time in which breath hydrogen increased by 20 ppm over the fasting level. RESULTS: Oro cecal transit time was larger after dry boldo extract administration, compared to placebo (112.5 +/- 15.4 and 87 +/- 11.8 min respectively, paired t p <0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Dry boldo extract prolongs oro cecal transit time, a possible explanation for its medicinal use.

Biosynthesis of ascaridole: iodide peroxidase-catalyzed synthesis of a monoterpene endoperoxide in soluble extracts of Chenopodium ambrosioides fruit.
Johnson MA; Croteau R
Arch Biochem Biophys, 235: 1, 1984 Nov 15, 254-66
Ascaridole, an asymmetric monoterpene endoperoxide with anthelmintic properties, occurs as a major constituent (60-80%) in the volatile oil of American wormseed fruit (Chenopodium ambrosioides: Chenopodiaceae), and as a lesser component in the leaf pocket oil of the boldo tree (Peumus boldus: Monimiaceae). Determination of optical activity and chromatographic resolution of naturally occurring ascaridole, and several synthetic derivatives, showed that both wormseed and boldo produce ascaridole in racemic form. The biosynthesis of ascaridole from the conjugated, symmetrical diene alpha-terpinene (a major component of the oil from wormseed) was shown to be catalyzed by a soluble iodide peroxidase isolated from homogenates of C. ambrosioides fruit and leaves. The enzymatic synthesis of ascaridole was confirmed by capillary gas-liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry of the product, which was also shown to be racemic. Optimal enzymatic activity occurred at pH 4.0 in the presence of 2.5 mM H2O2 and 1 mM NaI. Soluble enzyme extracts were fractionated by gel filtration on both Sephacryl S-300 and Sephadex G-100, and were shown to consist of a high-molecular-weight peroxidase component (Mr greater than 1,000,000, 30% of total activity) and two other peroxidase species having apparent molecular weights of 62,000 and 45,000 (major component). Peroxidase activity was susceptible to proteolytic destruction only after periodate treatment, suggesting an association of the enzyme(s) with polysaccharide material. Ascaridole biosynthesis from alpha-terpinene was inhibited by cyanide, catalase, and reducing agents, but not by compounds that trap superoxide or quench singlet oxygen. A peroxide transfer reaction initiated by peroxidase-generated I+ is proposed for the conversion of alpha-terpinene to ascaridole.
Genotoxicity of the boldine aporphine alkaloid in prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms.
Moreno PR; Vargas VM; Andrade HH; Henriques AT; Henriques JA
Mutat Res, 260: 2, 1991 Jun, 145-52
The aporphine alkaloid boldine, present in Peumus boldus (boldo-do-Chile) widely used all over the world, was tested for the presence of genotoxic, mutagenic and recombinogenic activities in microorganisms. This alkaloid did not show genotoxic activity with or without metabolic activation in the SOS chromotest and Ames tester strains TA100, TA98 and TA102. It was not able to induce point and frameshift mutations in haploid Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells. However, mitotic recombinational events such as crossing-over and gene conversion were weakly induced in diploid yeast cells by this alkaloid. Also, boldine was able to induce weakly cytoplasmic 'petite' mutation in haploid yeast cells.

Hepatoprotective and anti-inflammatory effects of a traditional medicinal plant of Chile, Peumus boldus.
Lanhers MC; Joyeux M; Soulimani R; Fleurentin J; Sayag M; Mortier F; Younos C; Pelt JM
Planta Med, 57: 2, 1991 Apr, 110-5
Dried hydro-alcoholic extract of Peumus boldus (Monimiaceae) has been evaluated for hepatoprotective, choleretic and anti-inflammatory effects in mice and rats, in order to validate or to invalidate traditional therapeutic indications. This extract exerted a significant hepatoprotection of tert-butyl hydroperoxide-induced hepatotoxicity in isolated rat hepatocytes (in vitro technique) by reducing the lipid peroxidation and the enzymatic leakage of LDH; this in vitro efficacy was reinforced by a significant hepatoprotection on CCl4-induced hepatotoxicity in mice (in vivo technique), the plant extract reducing the enzymatic leakage of ALAT. Boldine, the main alkaloid of P. boldus appears to be implicated in this hepatoprotective activity. Choleretic effects, often mentioned in traditional indications, have not been confirmed in rats. Finally, significant and dose-dependent anti-inflammatory effects were obtained on an acute inflammatory process (carrageenan-induced edema test in rats). Boldine does not appear to be involved in such properties.

Ethnobotanical survey of the medicinal flora used by the Caribs of Guatemala.
Girón LM; Freire V; Alonzo A; Cáceres A
J Ethnopharmacol, 34: 2-3, 1991 Sep, 173-87
An ethnobotanical survey was conducted among the Carib population of Guatemala in 1988-1989. In general terms, the sample surveyed possessed a relatively good standard of living. Results indicated that health services were utilized by the population, and that domestic medicine, mainly plants (96.9%) was used by 15% of the population. One hundred and nineteen plants used for medicinal purposes were collected, of which 102 (85.7%) could be identified; a list of these together with the information provided for each plant is presented. The most frequently reported plants used as medicine are: Acalypha arvensis, Cassia alata, Cymbopogon citratus, Melampodium divaricatum. Momordica charantia, Neurolaena lobata,Ocimum basilicum, Petiveria alliacea and Solanum nigrescens. Most of these plants are found in the region, but some are brought from the Highlands or outside of the country, such as Malva parviflora, Matricaria chamomilla, Peumus boldus, Pimpinella anisum, Rosmarinus officinalis and Tagetes lucida. This survey demonstrated that the Carib population of Guatemala has survived in a transcultural environment of African and native Amerindian beliefs.
Evaluation of the genotoxic potential of the alkaloid boldine in mammalian cell systems in vitro and in vivo.
Tavares DC; Takahashi CS
Mutat Res, 321: 3, 1994 May, 139-45
Boldine is an alkaloid present in Peumus boldus (popularly called "boldo-do-chile" in Brazil) which has healing properties and is used for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. The possible clastogenic effect of the drug was tested in vitro on human peripheral blood lymphocytes by evaluating the induction of chromosome aberrations and sister-chromatid exchanges (SCEs). Cultures from different individuals were treated with boldine at concentrations of 10, 20 and 40 micrograms/ml of culture medium. The effect of the alkaloid was also tested in an in vivo assay using BALB/c mouse bone marrow cells. Boldine was administered to the animals by gavage at the concentrations of 225, 450 and 900 mg/kg body weight. Under the conditions used, boldine did not induce a statistically significant increase in the frequency of chromosome aberrations or SCEs in either test system.

Boldo and boldine: an emerging case of natural drug development.
Speisky H; Cassels BK
Pharmacol Res, 29: 1, 1994 Jan-Feb, 1-12
Boldo (Peumus boldus Mol.), a Chilean tree traditionally employed in folk medicine and recognized as a herbal remedy in a number of pharmacopoeias, mainly for the treatment of liver ailments, has recently been the subject of increasing attention. Boldine, in particular, the major and most characteristic alkaloidal constituent of this plant species, now emerges as its most interesting active principle from the pharmacological viewpoint. The recent demonstration that boldine is an effective antioxidant in both biological and non-biological systems has opened up the perspective of a broad range of uses in medicine and industry. Given the toxicological data on this alkaloid, its antioxidative properties situate it as a potentially useful substance in many disease states featuring free-radical related oxidative injury. This review attempts to cover and discuss the studies conducted over the last four decades on the chemical and pharmacological properties of boldo and its main constituent.
Anti-inflammatory and antipyretic effects of boldine.
Backhouse N; Delporte C; Givernau M; Cassels BK; Valenzuela A; Speisky H
Agents Actions, 42: 3-4, 1994 Oct, 114-7
Boldine, an antioxidant alkaloid isolated from Peumus boldus, exhibits a dose-dependent anti-inflammatory activity in the carrageenan-induced guinea pig paw edema test with an oral ED50 of 34 mg/kg. Boldine also reduces bacterial pyrogen-induced hyperthermia in rabbits to an extent which varied between 51% and 98% at a dose of 60 mg/kg p.o. In vitro studies carried out in rat aortal rings revealed that boldine is an effective inhibitor of prostaglandin biosynthesis, promoting 53% inhibition at 75 microM. The latter in vitro effect may be mechanistically linked to the anti-inflammatory and antipyretic effects of boldine exerted in vivo.
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